Hello and welcome to Early Music Sources.com
my name is Elam Rotem and today we'll give an introduction to improvisation around 1600.
When we talk about improvisation nowadays, we can mean different things:
from truly inventing something from scratch ex-tempore, on the spot,
up to merely adding some little ornaments to a composed piece.
Along this spectrum there are many shades of grey.
For example, how much is truly invented on the spot,
how much is based on an existing material or common progressions,
how much one has prepared in advance and so on.
All these grey situations were not defined or categorized in earlier times,
they were all referred to as simply "performing music".
Now, there are different ways to go about when discussing historical improvisation.
In this episode we will focus on the line between composition and improvisation,
or in other words, what is given versus what is actually performed.
We will go through different musical situations and see
how much musical material included in them was composed in advance,
and how much was what we nowadays refer to as improvisation.
1. Adding ornaments & diminutions upon a given part or parts
The idea is simple: the composer supplies the basic notes of the piece,
and the performer, according to his level and art, should adorn the music
with little graces as well as with more elaborated passaggi or diminutions.
The term diminutions refers to the fact that the note values,
which are typically big to begin with, are diminuted, getting smaller, faster.
This field of performance practice is by far the most rich in treatises.
The earliest treatise in the 16th century is Sylvestro Ganassi's Fontegara from 1535.
Towards the beginning of the 17th century more and more such treatises were published.
Among the prominent authors there are dalla Casa, Bassano,
Bovicelli, and Ricardo and Francesco Rognoni.
The treatises are often based on gradually learning how to fill the between different intervals.
Once the student accumulated different ways to add diminutions between the various intervals,
he could quite easily, and without deep understanding of counterpoint,
perform pieces according to the accepted performance practice,
that is, with many ornaments and diminutions.
Nowadays, these treatises are studied mainly by instrumentalists,
but they are often meant for singers.
Towards the turn of the 17th century, more and more music
was composed with diminutions written out in them.
From this point on one may wonder, depending on the context of course,
whether the composer expected more diminutions to be added,
or expected instead, like Giulio Caccini for example,
that the carefully written-out notes will be executed precisely without adding anything else.
As one could have an entire episode on this subject alone,
I'll mention briefly only three further interesting points:
1. Addition of ornaments and diminutions in ensemble.
When we think of diminutions we often think of an accompanied single virtuoso performer,
but the addition of ornaments and diminutions was expected
also in the case of a complete vocal or instrumental ensemble.
In that case, each part might have a slightly different function,
and be allowed or not allowed certain ornaments.
This is described in detail by Luigi Zenobi sometime at the end of the 16th century.
Check the link at footnote.
2. "Viola Bastarda".
In the case of the performance of instrumental solistic diminutions,
one is free of many of the limitations included in an ensemble performance.
Apart from keyboard or plucked instruments that are able to play all the parts of the piece by themselves,
there is the case of other instruments with a wide range.
For example, an instrument such as a bass viol
is able to jump between different parts of the piece.
Starting with one part, then jumping to another, and so on.
This was often called "Viola Bastarda",
although the practice is not necessarily exclusive to viols.
3. Extended cadences.
Just like in the much later cadenza of the late Baroque and classical period,
there are sources from the early 17th century describing a possibility
of prolonging the penultimate step of the cadence for the execution of more diminutions.
These extended cadences were often called in treatises "cadenze per finale".
So, this was the first category: taking an existing material
and hopefully enhancing it with additional notes and ornaments in performance.
The next category would be to take a certain musical material,
and to perform it several times, but every time a bit differently - with variations.
2. Performing variations based on a given melody or a harmonic sequence
Variation pieces were very common during the 16th and 17th centuries,
and in fact, remained a common musical form more or less until today.
As its concept is so beautifully simple, it is very plausible to believe
that the surviving pieces are but an example of a common practice,
where musicians were making instrumental renditions of songs or dances,
that is, improvising, according to the needs of the moment and their technical level.
The many surviving variation pieces are mostly written for keyboard or plucked instruments,
but after the turn of the 17th century one can find also such pieces for ensembles.
In Italy the form was often called partite, "parts", or "sections" if you like
and among the popular melodies there were "la monica" and "aria di firenze".
Apart from variation pieces based on given melodies,
there are others that are based on more abstract harmonic progressions.
An early example of this practice is found in Ortiz's treatise from 1553,
where he supplies a short harmonic sequence that should be
repeated on a keyboard instrument while a melodic instrument is performing variations.
Among the more popular harmonic sequences
there are the Passamezzo, Romanesca, and Passacaglia.
An example of how these written-out variation pieces are slightly different
from how we perceive a piece nowadays
is Frescobaldi's "partite sopra l'aria della Romanesca".
It is found in two different editions of his first book of toccatas, first published in 1615.
In one edition he changed and added more variations to his Romanesca.
To change a piece that was already printed once was not a common thing to do,
and he definitely didn't change anything in his toccatas.
Variation pieces however, at least at that time, had a certain flexibility connected with them,
and it is almost certain, that if Frescobaldi were here,
and we were to ask him to play a Romanesca for us,
it would be a colorful mixture of ex-tempore improvisation
and composed, or semi-composed things he had in his fingers.
In other words, the written-out Romanesca of Frescobaldi,
is just one version out of many other potential versions.
Frescobaldi lovers might add,
that it is probably the most ingenious elaborated surviving setting of the Romanesca.
Another interesting point concerning variation pieces is the transition,
that took place some decades into the 17th century, between the rather abstract
repeated harmonic sequences into the literally repeated bass patterns - the basso ostinato.
A study case of that phenomena is the passacaglia sequence.
To begin with, the Passacaglia was as abstract as possible - a certain harmonic movement,
typically with a downwards walking bass but not always,
from the first degree of the mode to the fifth degree.
A great example is, again, by Frescobaldi, in his piece for voice and basso continuo
Aria di passacaglia: Cosi mi disprezzate.
Even if modulating and containing a short recit in the middle,
the passacaglia scheme is always there.
The only thing is, that despite that, the actual bass line is constantly different,
and thus, the details of the harmonic progressions are constantly varied.
If we compare this to the famous Lamento della ninfa by Claudio Monteverdi,
in one of the later works of the composer, we see a completely different concept.
Here also there is a passacaglia, but here the bass is not varied,
it is the same four notes repeated throughout the piece.
The gradual transition into literally repeating basses
allowed easier ways of improvisation in ensemble:
when the bass is constant the upper voice or voices
are able to more securely know what they are doing.
An example for such instance is found in one of the surviving manuscripts
of Monteverdi's L'incoronazione di Poppea, where it's written at some point
"Si suona passacaglie", here a passacaglia is to be played, but no music is supplied.
The musicians however, surely improvised some nice passacaglia.
In England, pieces with literally repeated bass became very popular
during the seventeenth century and these were called grounds.
An important source for that is Christopher Simpson's
"The Art of Playing ex tempore upon a Ground" from 1659.
Improvising variations is fun, you should try it!
Now, let's have a look at a situation in which the player has
the bass line of a piece and he is expected to play more than only this line - basso continuo,
and later on, also partimento.
3. Realization of a given basso continuo part or partimento
When realizing a basso continuo one is expected to add further parts above a given bass.
It cannot be just anything,
it should be in agreement with the other written parts of the piece,
and thus, support the composition.
Except for short transitional moments, it is mostly not a place for too much fantasy,
as too much fantasy would most probably overshadow the written parts.
Agostino Agazzari, in one of the first treatises on basso continuo from 1607,
described how different instruments each have a different function when playing basso continuo.
For him, any instrument could play basso continuo; from keyboards to violins.
He suggested that different instruments may add small passaggi and ornaments,
but noted the danger of excessive creativity, that can lead to
"a mess and confusion; an unworthy and displeasing thing to the listener."
Also, he wrote that if there are several instruments playing together
they must "each await their turn and not create a racket all at once,
"seeing who can cry the loudest."
Notice how this warning includes a rather vivid description of an improvising ensemble.
Now, realizing a bass in order to support an existing composition is one thing,
but what if by playing new parts upon a bass it is possible to create new compositions?
In such a case, the bass line should more correctly be called partimento.
Partimenti were widely used only toward the end of the 17th century,
but their roots can be found already at the beginning of the century.
In Catholic Italy, organists had a big role in the liturgy,
and were expected to supply music in different parts of the different ceremonies,
either free or based on chant melodies, and in the necessary length according to the moment.
This was probably mainly improvised music.
One of the practices involved, as we shortly mentioned
in our episode about Gregorian chant, was the so-called alternatim practice,
where short organ versetti replaced the otherwise sung verses.
In order to aid beginner organists at least in part,
Adriano Banchieri in his book l'organo suonarino from 1605,
supplies bass lines with some special signs as a guide for beginner organists,
so they won't get lost when improvising the versetti.
Or more practically put, so they will start and finish
in the right note and will not confuse the singers.
Here, the organist is to realize this bass,
a bit like a basso continuo only that nothing is accompanied,
the realization is a piece for itself.
According to the rules of counterpoint,
the organist was free to play basically whatever he wanted above this bass,
but if we look more closely, Banchieri sometimes gave hints for a polyphonic fugal realization.
Here is my realization of this "Christe eleison "versetto
This concept, of supplying a bass line with or without figures,
with few or many hints to how it should be realized,
is the basic idea behind partimenti.
Partimenti became a standard way of teaching
harmony, counterpoint and improvisation, until the 19th century.
So, having a bass line of a piece,
we are able to either produce accompaniment in the case of basso continuo,
or produce a piece on its own in the case of partimenti.
What about if we were to get a specific melody,
and were requested to incorporate it as it is in our improvisation?
4. Performing pieces based on a given chant melody or an abstract soggetto
In our episode about Gregorian chant we mentioned the practice of "Cantare super librum",
where while a chant is sung as a cantus firmus
further voices are added to it by improvisation.
This practice is widely documented across Europe from the 15th to the 17th centuries,
both with mere reports about the practice
as well as descriptions in treatises for how it should be done.
The practice was very much varied in style.
Some only sang consonances homophonically with the cantus firmus,
while others sang more complex counterpoint with dissonances and canons.
Some reporters are astonished by the practice, like Antimo Liberti
who witnessed the papal singers in the mid 17th century,
and wrote that "listening to each of these educated singers
"while they compose on the spot upon a plainchant,
"that is, making contrapunto alla mente with noble harmony
"as if it were written down and composed in advance,
"provokes at the same time wonder and sweetness."
However, as each singer can only be sure of the cantus firmus,
and cannot know for sure what the other voices will sing,
mistakes and awkward moments were inevitable.
Thus, this practice was often considered as "not much approved by the learned",
and Nicola Vicentino wrote that he prefers
the pieces to be composed and not improvised, so to avoid errors.
Regardless the varying quality, styles, and criticism,
this practice was very prominent, and demanded that
each singer should practice and know counterpoint very well.
A procedure that is somewhat similar but is performed by a single improviser,
was one of the daily tasks of a church organist.
In many instances, he was expected to incorporate liturgical chants in his pieces;
especially in context of the alternatim, but also in other cases.
This included little versetti, that according to surviving examples
could be in different styles, but often involving imitation.
At this point, it is hard not to mention Frescobaldi once again,
with his beautiful versetti from Fiori musicali.
But the incorporation of given melodies didn't end with little versetti,
longer and more complex fantasias and ricercars
were also sometimes based on liturgical materials and improvised on the spot.
For example, in the entrance exams to become an organist
in Venice's San Marco in the 16th century, exactly such a task was given:
based on some selected Kyrie or another liturgical melody
the candidate was expected to improvise a four part fantasia,
with clear parts, "as if it were four singers performing".
Stemming from the beginning of the 16th century,
the genre of the fantasia was very popular,
both in written form but also in reports of live improvisations.
A close relative of the genre is the ricercar, also called fugue in certain areas.
In some circles ricercar and fantasia have distinct differences
but in others they are synonyms, as for example
in the case of the praised lutenist Francesco da Milano.
In any case, both the fantasia and ricercar typically include
fugal writing and sometimes very sophisticated counterpoint and varying meters.
An important treatise in general, but especially in this regard,
is Santa Maria's "Arte de Tañer Fantasia", "The Art of Playing Fantasia."
Notice that it's not "the art of composing or improvising fantasia",
the verb "playing", according to Santa Maria,
includes both composing and improvising, and not merely "executing".
A last point concerning the fantasia:
note that this kind of pieces have no text.
This is an important point, as the rules for how to set text
in vocal music in the 16th century were probably more strict than in any other period.
So, working without a text was a great way to explore
contrapuntal imitative technique in a way, that was on the one hand
advanced and comprehensive, and on the other hand,
free of the limiting requirement of setting a text.
Improvising complex fugal polyphonic pieces based on a given theme
may be considered as the height of this art,
that was definitely possessed by the great players of
keyboard and plucked instruments of the 16th and 17th century.
Let's continue to the last category of improvisation.
5. Performing free pieces with only a given mode or affect or nothing whatsoever
When a vocal piece is performed, whether in church or otherwise,
it is often necessary to have before it a little musical introduction, or "intonation",
to establish the mode of the piece, so the singers could easily find their notes.
When such a piece is required, the only given musical element is the mode
The rest is up to the player.
When these preludes were rather short they were called "intonations",
but when they were longer they were commonly called toccatas.
Here is how Praetorius defines it:
"a toccata is a prelude played by an organist when he first sits down at the keyboard,
"before he begins the motet or fugue.
"It is invented on the spot with simple individual chords and diminutions.
"Each player has his own manner of executing it."
Indeed, the countless examples of written-out toccatas
from the from the different countries and different decades
are very often filled with virtuosic diminutions.
Despite of the vast examples of written toccatas we have,
the great masters who composed them
were most probably improvising them as part of their daily duties.
We are told by a French musician visiting Rome,
that while Frescobaldi's "printed works render sufficient evidence of his skill,
"to judge his profound knowledge adequately you must hear him
"as he improvises toccatas full of refinement and admirable inventions."
In some cases, it is not the mode that is given to the improviser,
but a specific affect.
This is the case for example in the Catholic elevatione,
a part in the liturgy where the blessed sacrament is elevated by the priest.
Then, the congregation is expected to contemplate the suffering of Christ,
and this should be expressed musically with harsh musical means:
with a harsh mode, most often some mi mode,
harsh dissonances, many sharps etc.
This can be seen in many examples of written-out toccate per elevatione.
There are however instances,
where the player is not bound to anything whatsoever,
and can improvise in anyway he fancies.
This was our introduction to improvisation around 1600, we hope you enjoyed it!
Don't forget to check the special page on our website
with all the footnotes and extra information.
Feel free to comment, share, and like, and see you next time at EMS.com.
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